Sunni vs Shia Islam: Historical and Theological Differences


Introduction: The Two Major Schools of Thought in Islam


With over 1.8 billion followers, Islam is the world's second-largest religion. Within this unified community, there are two main schools of thought: Sunni and Shia. While they share many core beliefs (like Tawhid/Oneness of God, Prophethood, the Quran, and many religious practices), their differences, rooted in history and theology, have shaped their distinct identities. This article explores these differences in an easy-to-understand way.


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Chapter 1: The Historical Root – The Succession Crisis


The primary difference began immediately after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in 632 CE.


· The Sunni View: Sunnis believe the Prophet did not explicitly appoint a successor. Therefore, the choice of leader (Caliph) was left to the community's consensus. They view the election of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph at Saqifah as correct and for the benefit of Muslims. He was followed by Umar and Uthman. For Sunnis, the Caliphate is a political leadership position based on election.

· The Shia View: Shias believe that Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), by God's command, explicitly appointed his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib (AS), as his immediate successor on multiple occasions. The most important event was at Ghadir Khumm, where the Prophet said, "For whoever I am his Mawla (master), Ali is his Mawla." For Shias, leadership (Imamah) is a divinely appointed position. The Imam is not just a political leader but also the spiritual guide and infallible interpreter of the Quran. They see the event at Saqifah as a deviation from the Prophet's clear directive.


This initial disagreement over leadership gradually led to the development of two distinct theological and legal schools.


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Chapter 2: Core Theological Differences


The historical split led to differences in core beliefs.


1. Imamah (Leadership) – The Biggest Difference


· Sunni Islam: View the Caliph/Imam as a political and administrative leader chosen by the community. The leader is from the Quraysh tribe but is not infallible and can make mistakes. They fully accept the order of the first four "Rightly Guided Caliphs."

· Shia Islam: Consider Imamah to be a pillar of faith (Usul al-Din). The Imam is appointed by God through the Prophet. The Imam is infallible (protected from all error and sin) and possesses divine knowledge. He is God's proof on Earth. Twelver Shias believe in 12 Imams, beginning with Imam Ali (AS) and ending with Imam al-Mahdi (AS), the awaited savior.


2. Divine Justice (Adl)


· Sunni (Ashari Theology): Believe that whatever God does is inherently just because God did it. Human reason cannot independently judge good and evil.

· Shia (Twelver Theology): Believe justice is an intrinsic attribute of God. God is inherently just and cannot commit injustice. Human intellect can independently understand the goodness of justice and the evil of oppression.


3. Sources of Religious Authority


· Sunni: Typically follow one of the four major schools of jurisprudence (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali), founded by scholars who lived centuries after the Prophet.

· Shia: Follow a living religious authority, a Marja' al-Taqlid (Source of Emulation), who is a senior expert in Islamic law. They derive their religious laws primarily from the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet's family), whom they believe are infallible.


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Chapter 3: Differences in Religious Practice

Theological differences naturally led to variations in some practical rituals.

Topic Sunni Practice Shia Practice

Ablution (Wudu) Washing the feet. Wiping (Masah) the front of the feet with wet hands.

Prayer (Salat) Usually fold arms across the chest. The call to prayer (Adhan) includes "As-salatu khayrun minan-nawm" (prayer is better than sleep). Pray with arms down at the sides. The Adhan includes "Hayya 'ala khayril-'amal" (Hasten to the best of deeds) and often "Ashhadu anna Aliyyan waliullah" (I testify that Ali is the friend of God).

Temporary Marriage (Mut'ah) Consider it forbidden and invalid. Consider it permissible under specific conditions.

Sources of Law Quran, Sunnah, Ijma' (consensus), Qiyas (analogical reasoning). Quran, Sunnah (of the Prophet and Imams), Intellect ('Aql), Ijma' (only if it reflects the view of an Imam).


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Chapter 4: Differences in Hadith Sources


This is a profound difference influencing many beliefs and laws.


· Sunni: Rely on hadiths (traditions) narrated by any of the Prophet's Companions (Sahaba), who are generally considered trustworthy. Their primary hadith collections are the Six Authentic Books (Sihah Sittah), the most famous being Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.

· Shia: Only accept hadiths narrated through the Prophet's Family (Ahl al-Bayt) and their trusted companions. They believe many Companions erred after the Prophet's death, so not all their narrations are accepted. Their primary hadith collections are the Four Books (Al-Kutub Al-Arba'ah), the most famous being Al-Kafi by Al-Kulayni.


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Chapter 5: Differing Views on History and Figures


· Sunni: Hold all Companions of the Prophet in high esteem and generally consider them just, avoiding criticism of their political actions.

· Shia: While respecting many Companions, they critically examine the political actions of some (like the first three Caliphs regarding Saqifah). Shias also emphasize visiting the shrines of Imams (like in Karbala) and building mausoleums over graves, practices some Sunni branches (like Salafism/Wahhabism) reject.


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Conclusion: Unity in Diversity


While historical and theological differences exist, it is crucial to remember that the common ground between Sunnis and Shias is far greater and more fundamental. Belief in one God, the Quran, the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), the Day of Judgment, and most core practices unite all Muslims.


Unfortunately, throughout history, extremists and political powers have exploited these differences to create division. The duty of all aware Muslims is to strengthen interfaith dialogue, emphasize commonalities, and avoid insulting each other's sanctities. Understanding these differences is not to create hostility but to foster better understanding and move towards Islamic unity, as the Quran says: "And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided." (Quran 3:103)